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Digital transformations in developing economies: From the first-mile infrastructure to the end-user finger tips
Economic Research Working Paper No. 96
This paper reviews the concepts, mechanisms, and empirical evidence on the diffusion of digital technologies (DTs) in developing economies, focusing on the distinct infrastructural layers of connectivity—from first-mile submarine cables to last-mile mobile and broadband networks. It examines how infrastructure gaps, usage disparities, and technological divides shape digitalization pathways and their socio-economic impacts, with a particular emphasis on lower-income regions like Sub-Saharan Africa. The analysis highlights how submarine cables reduce connectivity costs and expand Internet access, yet also reveals uneven benefits due to limited absorptive capacity and new digital vulnerabilities. By synthesizing evidence on rural mobile coverage, urban Internet spillovers, and trade integration, the paper emphasizes the need for coordinated policies to bridge digital divides and foster inclusive digital transformation.
Publication year: 2026
Diffusion of Clean Technologies: Patterns, Mechanisms, and Future Challenges
Economic Research Working Paper No. 95
This paper examines the patterns and mechanisms of global clean technology diffusion over the last two decades. We document four stylized facts: uneven sectoral progress favoring power and light transport; China's dominance in innovation and manufacturing; the role of modularity in driving cost declines; and limited adoption in developing economies. Through case studies of solar, electric vehicles, and hydrogen, we analyze how policy and infrastructure enable scale. Finally, we assess emerging challenges for the next phase of diffusion, including critical mineral constraints, artificial intelligence, and geopolitical fragmentation.
Understanding Technology Diffusion in the Agricultural Sector
Economic Research Working Paper No. 94
The paper introduces the basic concepts related to adoption, diffusion and innovation in the agricultural sector. This paper introduces relevant definitions and issues, examines conceptual models of technology diffusion in agriculture, followed by a description of the process of technology discovery. The paper furthermore explores the channels and mechanisms of diffusion, the factors influencing adoption, the adaptation of technologies to local contexts, empirical studies illustrating innovation and diffusion patterns, the role of government policies and international organizations, and the impact of technology diffusion on agricultural productivity, sustainable development, and food security and livelihoods. The paper then discusses innovation and diffusion of agricultural biotechnologies and precision agricultural technologies by summarizing the experiences and lessons learned from insect resistant and herbicide tolerant maize, insect resistant cotton and precision agriculture technologies in a selected set of countries. The paper draws up policy lessons and recommendations that may be useful to policy and decision makers considering such technologies in their jurisdiction.
Diffusion of Genetically Modified Crop Technology
Economic Research Working Paper No. 93
Technology diffusion is central to the process of innovation, as new products or processes must be adopted for them to make meaningful contributions to societal welfare or economic growth. We focus here on the global diffusion of technology that has the potential to improve food insecurity and address challenges posed by climatic effects, genetically modified (GM) crops. We adopt a variety of sources and methods to demonstrate the reach and timing of genetically modified crop technology diffusion worldwide, relying primarily on national regulatory approval information. Specifically, we depict the international adoption of genetically modified crop technology over time and assess the rate at which GM cotton, maize, and soybeans have been adopted within countries. In addition, we examine two case studies that assess an underused information source—trademark data—to determine whether they provide an alternative measure of diffusion. The case studies focus on two different contexts: established branded technologies and nascent technologies. In addition to significant overlap with regulatory approval data for established branded technologies, trademarks appear to provide an indicator of pre-commercialization in countries where regulatory approval coverage can expand. We end with guidance on when trademarks may serve as an indicator of international technology diffusion.
The Changing Geography of the International Diffusion of Technological Knowledge
Economic Research Working Paper No. 92
This paper examines the evolving geography of international technological knowledge diffusion over the last four decades using multiple patent-based indicators. We first review the main mechanisms through which knowledge diffuses across borders—including trade and global value chains, foreign direct investment, skilled migration, global science, and markets for technology—highlighting their complementarities and the role of domestic capabilities. We then provide new empirical evidence based on cross-border patent citations, technological trajectories defined by IPC recombinations, patent-to-science linkages, and international patent families. The results reveal persistent asymmetries, with a small group of advanced economies remaining central knowledge hubs, alongside the rising role of emerging countries, especially China. Science-based technologies diffuse farther and faster, while capability constraints continue to limit integration for many regions.
How Do New Technologies Diffuse?
Economic Research Working Paper No. 91
Technology diffusion is central to economic development. This paper examines diffusion patterns for 31 technologies for 139 countries over two centuries, extending existing databases to include recent digital technologies and renewable energy technologies. Using cross-country panel regressions, we find that while adoption lags have declined from 50 years (pre-1950) to 15 years (post-2000), adoption intensity in developing economies remains at 53% of advanced economy levels. We document diverging intensity for older technologies but emerging convergence for post-2000 technologies, suggesting digital innovations may reduce the technology gap. These findings inform policies aimed at accelerating technology diffusion to developing economies.
World Intellectual Property Report 2026: Technology on the Move - Executive Summary
This Executive Summary highlights the key findings of WIPO's flagship World Intellectual Property Report 2026.The World Intellectual Property Report 2026 reveals striking patterns in how technologies spread globally, with profound implications for economic development.
World Intellectual Property Report 2026: Technology on the Move
Pushing the world's technological frontier by inventing new and better technologies is a necessary condition for long-term growth. For new and better technologies to raise economic productivity, they need to be widely adopted and used in the economy. Technology diffusion is a central part of the innovation journey. This report explores how different technologies diffuse within and across economies globally and the role of innovation ecosystems to foster it.
Innovation Capabilities Outlook 2026
This inaugural edition presents groundbreaking analytical methodology using patents, trademarks, publications, and exports data to comprehensively map global capability networks and systematically examine strategic diversification pathways for worldwide innovation ecosystems. Innovation Capabilities Outlook 2026 establishes a global baseline for innovation ecosystem analysis.
The Future is Under the Glass: Digital Design Protection and Appropriation Strategy
Economic Research Working Paper No. 97
The paper examines how legal certainty shapes protection and appropriation of digital designs such as icons, animations, and layouts. Leveraging the 2012 Apple v. Samsung verdict as a decisive clarification of their protectability and enforceability, we analyze USPTO design patents from 2009–2015 using a matched difference-in-differences approach. We show that legal certainty reduces due diligence costs far more than monitoring costs. This asymmetry lowers the threshold for securing protection, leading to a 9 percent increase in digital design patents. At the same time, appropriation shifted away from licensing toward transfers, with the effect strongest in dense design spaces where monitoring costs remain high despite increased legal certainty. These findings extend transaction cost theory by showing that legal certainty unevenly reduces transaction costs, which in turn alters protection thresholds and shifts appropriation strategies. They also demonstrate how policy changes influence innovation when value is created “under the glass.”.