The era of fossil fuels is over. The United Nations Conference of Parties (COP) 28 (2023) closed with an agreement officially marking the beginning of its conclusion and paving the way for a rapid energy transition. The world’s first “global stocktake” called on 200 Parties to shift away from fossil fuels with the goal of maintaining the global temperature limit of 1.5 degrees Celsius, largely through the tripling of renewable energy capacity and doubling of energy efficiency improvements by 2030, while speeding the phase-down of coal power and fossil fuel subsidies. This sets a critical benchmark for accelerating climate action, emphasizing the urgent need to scale up renewable energy and energy efficiency deployment. Assuming that countries meet their shared climate goals, no new fossil fuel extraction projects are needed to meet the energy demands implied by the 1.5°C scenario of the Paris Agreement
Energy technologies beyond renewable energy
Ambitious commitments to renewables alone won’t get us there
Renewable energy remains a critical enabler for keeping the average global temperature rise below 1.5°C. Innovations in solar photovoltaics (PVs), wind and battery technologies have enhanced energy conversion efficiencies and reduced costs. While countries are accelerating the share of renewables in the world through large-scale infrastructure investments and grid integration, numerous technological advances have enabled sub-national actors to partake in this energy transition. This publication explores some of these actors and end-use sectors, for which renewable energy technologies are both viable and meaningful alternatives to fossil fuels, now and in the future.
To name a few, hospitals and supermarkets can access reliable electricity at lower costs through hybrid power systems that combine renewable energy with conventional energy sources
Technologies such as smart meters and energy storage systems are enabling energy communities to come together and implement decentralized renewable energy systems in both cities and rural areas as “prosumers.” Further, more and more rural communities are relying on solutions such as solar home systems, solar powered irrigation and community biogas to serve their energy needs, while mini- and micro-grids contribute to green electrification targets even in the most remote locations.
In 2022, the share of renewable energy from solar, wind, hydro, geothermal and ocean reached a record 5.5 percent of the total global energy supply. At the same time, the emission intensity of the power sector is expected to fall at an unprecedented rate in the next few years
However, renewable energy sources and their enabling technologies are still not accelerating at the pace needed to achieve global Net Zero emission targets
Renewable energy sources and their enabling technologies are still not accelerating at the pace needed to achieve global Net Zero emission targets
Against this backdrop, and despite more ambitious climate commitments, the demand for fossil fuels remains relatively unchanged (
The “negawatt” approach, combining “negative” and “watt,” was coined in 1985 by physicist Amory Lovins and refers to investing in reduced energy consumption, such as heat or electricity, more than increased supply capacity. In short, the cheapest and cleanest energy is the energy that is not used in the first place. Rather than placing all the burden on consumers, this involved encouraging efficiency through several approaches in parallel, including (in his words) eliciting and rewarding innovation, taking risks, celebrating failures, and letting a thousand technological and institutional flowers bloom. In practice, he referred to making better use of demand-side management and energy-efficient technologies – technologies which have improved significantly since 1985.
In this publication we outline some of these proven and recent technological advances, specifically designed for the end-user groups covered in the various chapters. A number of breakthrough technologies have already transformed these sectors to some extent.
Energy technology innovations that emphasize electrification, energy efficiency and demand management will be crucial in moderating the surge in energy consumption
Scaling demand-side energy technologies
Green electrification is central to decarbonization of the energy sector. The share of total electricity in final energy consumption reached approximately 20 percent in 2023, up from 18 percent in 2015, driven mainly by electrification of the residential and transport sectors
Given the challenges confronting renewable energy and electrification amidst rising energy demand, energy efficiency remains a major opportunity for tackling climate change. Doubling energy efficiency improvements by 2030 would lower global CO2 emissions by over 7 billion tonnes. This is the equivalent to the emissions from the entire global transport sector today, which accounts for approximately a quarter of all energy related GHG emissions (
Now is an opportune moment to build on the global policy momentum and to scale up the deployment of diverse, market-ready technologies
Following the COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent global rise in energy prices in 2022, countries are now strengthening their energy efficiency policies, and investments have grown by 45 percent since 2020. Improvements in global energy efficiency (measured through energy intensity) did experience a slowdown in 2023
Energy-efficient devices, machines and appliances
To reach global climate targets, all sectors must significantly accelerate the adoption of energy-efficient appliances, machines and devices that cut down energy consumption. The introduction of Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) and labels has successfully promoted the replacement of everyday electric appliances with more efficient models. For instance, the best-available fridge-freezers now consume 60 percent less electricity than older models. This significant reduction highlights the impact of MEPS in driving energy efficiency in households. However, progress is highly uneven across different types of appliances. For instance, a mere 26 percent of distribution transformers and 33 percent of cooking appliances are subject to MEPS, compared to around 90 percent of fridges and air conditioners, marking a significant missed opportunity
In urban and public spaces, energy-efficient light-emitting diode (LED) streetlights are becoming more common, and some cities have explored the impact of intelligent and inter-connected streetlights on reduced energy usage. By moving to energy-efficient LED lighting, which is twice as efficient as conventional lighting, global lighting-related energy consumption could be reduced to 8 percent by 2030
Beyond household appliances and public spaces, technological advances have significantly improved the efficiency of devices designed for specific end-use sectors, such as hospitals, supermarkets and data centers. Energy-efficient medical and laboratory freezers, now covered by energy labels, are crucial for reducing energy use in health-care facilities. In supermarkets, energy-efficient transcritical cooling systems which use CO2 as a refrigerant have become the norm for food refrigeration in Europe and are beginning to scale globally.
Technologies that address the water–energy nexus
Water and energy are closely interdependent. As highlighted throughout this publication, investments in water conservation and efficiency go hand in hand with energy savings. From water utilities to agriculture, significant energy and emissions can be saved by investing in the right innovations, including energy-efficient pumps, leak detection and solar irrigation. Yet, less than 1 percent of climate technology investments addresses the water sector
For the water sector, aeration and pumping represent a major portion of energy consumption. Beyond more efficient motors and aerators, cutting-edge technologies such as intelligent pressure management and variable speed drives (VSDs) adapt pump speed and pressure to the varying water needs throughout the day, significantly reducing energy consumption. These advancements can nearly halve the energy consumed in these processes. The market for solar-powered water pumps in off-grid areas has grown rapidly since the early 2000s, while other irrigation innovations such as soil moisture sensors save water and energy by allowing more accurate water dosage. Technologies that address the water–energy nexus have been covered to some extent throughout the various chapters of this year’s Green Technology Book.
Managing agriculture’s energy demand
In on-farm agriculture operations, energy-intensive livestock ventilation systems similarly benefit from VSDs, high-volume low-speed (HVLS) fans, and phase change materials for insulation that absorb and release heat during phase transitions and maintain stable temperatures for heating and cooling. Other innovations enhancing energy efficiency include electric tractors, electric-driven robotic weeding and seeding machines using real-time kinetic technology enabling higher precision, and smart farm cloud management platforms that are digitizing cultivation processes while improving farmer decision-making.
Post-harvest and cold chain logistics capitalize on energy-efficient innovations, including thermal energy storage for warehouses, internet of things (IoT) sensors, and electrified transport refrigeration units (TRUs), which are transforming the transport of perishable products by serving as electrified alternatives to conventional diesel-powered TRUs. Grain drying systems can be improved without investing in entirely new systems using technologies that adapt dryer bins. And dairy processing is maximizing nonthermal processing techniques such as reverse osmosis, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and the pulsed electric field method for pasteurization.
Advances in energy monitoring and management
End-use sectors such as households, health-care facilities, data centers, agriculture and other sectors covered in this publication consume and convert significant amounts of energy. A major by-product of their activities is rejected energy or waste heat, with one evaluation estimating that 72 percent of global primary energy consumption is lost after conversion
The need to understand our energy usage better has spurred the development of more and more intelligent energy monitoring technologies. IoT sensors and artificial-intelligence algorithms have further enabled integrated energy management systems that connect a multitude of systems – such as water pumps, streetlights and ventilation systems – to predict and adapt their activity to real-time energy demand. Such demand–response programs further optimize and balance energy usage, contributing to more resilient and stable grid systems. Automated systems for energy management are especially important as they can help overcome limited skill-sets and awareness of energy management practices in end-use sectors.
Understanding and responding to energy demand is crucial for avoiding energy losses in end-use sectors. But so is the adoption of systems and technologies that help recover these losses through various forms, such as through heat or even through the embodied energy of water loss.
Technologies that avoid losses and recover energy
Mitigation of household and utility water losses presents a great opportunity for energy-saving, considering the very energy-consuming water pumping and treatment processes. Both simple and advanced technologies, ranging from low-flow showerheads to sensor-or satellite-based leak detection systems, are readily available but underutilized. But as demonstrated through the numerous technology examples in the publication, sometimes the solution for avoiding energy loss can be simple. Using the right insulation in a building to avoid heat dissipation or maintaining the piping systems to avoid leaks can save on both costs and energy down the line. Or, as the example from Chapter 4 (Services) shows, equipping display cabinets with simple air curtains and doors to avoid frost formation on coils can offer energy savings of almost 40 percent
Automated ventilation, heating and cooling for greenhouses maintains optimal growing conditions while minimizing energy loss. Livestock barns can employ simple HVLS fans that use the evaporative cooling effect for ventilation, while thermal screens and horticultural bubble wrap can be used in greenhouses to either retain heat or provide shading for crops. During post-harvest, dairy and grain processing are two of the most energy intensive sectors in the agrifood industry
Technologies that aim to not only avoid energy loss but also recover energy from end-use sectors are diverse. As wastewater can contain significant amounts of embedded energy, more utilities are looking at making use of the organic content through anaerobic digestion, combined heat and power, and other means of on-site energy production, such as emerging microbial fuel cell technology. In rural households and agricultural areas, modular anaerobic digesters are increasingly used to transform household and agricultural waste into clean cooking gas and fertilizer. In cities, experiments explore kinetic energy harvesting as a way of recovering energy from pedestrian movements, or flat absorber lines to absorb urban heat. And successful examples show how supermarkets have turned into energy suppliers, by recovering heat generated by cooling display cases and freezers.
Adaptation of energy systems
Energy systems are also increasingly susceptible and vulnerable to climate change. Extreme weather events cause large-scale power outages, and the growing need for cooling places further constraints on capacity and infrastructure. Changes in temperature and water availability affect the performance of primary energy sources – especially renewable energy. Significant adaptation measures are required to avoid damages to energy infrastructure and to enhance energy resilience
The Sharm El Sheikh Adaptation Agenda, introduced at COP27, has set a target for energy plans to include climate adaptation perspectives for energy generation, transmission and distribution infrastructure at national and sub-national levels. Here, focus is often on enabling decentralized energy systems through extended battery storage capacity and transmission and distribution networks. The targets also consider how transport infrastructure can become resilient to climate hazards through adoption of new technology, design and materials. While these technologies are not specified, and there is a global lack of standards on the topic, the Green Technology Book Adaptation edition presents a number of adaptation solutions for urban transport infrastructure.
With regard to the incorporation of energy resilience into national adaptation planning, the International Energy Agency (IEA) has found that even where countries have national strategies or adaptation plans, pressing needs for climate resilience in the electricity sector have not been addressed, evidenced by the fact that more than half of the 31 IEA member countries have limited or no information on the climate resilience of electricity systems. In fact, only 16 percent of these countries have articulated concrete actions in national adaptation strategies, covering the entire electricity value chain
In this edition on energy, climate adaptation of energy systems is addressed through an emphasis on technologies that enable decentralized energy systems. Understanding the link between energy access and climate adaptation is crucial, and yet this is often overlooked. Energy services themselves, such as cooling and back-up energy and water supply, are essential to respond to climate change impacts including drought, temperature rise, and natural disasters
Agriculture and renewable energy production can successfully coexist using agrivoltaics. Maximizing land and water use via agrivoltaics and aquavoltaics (energy technologies that allow for simultaneous use for agri- or aqua-culture purposes) achieves synergies between mitigation and adaptation for rural communities, boosting both renewable energy supply and food production. This co-location provides solutions for land constraints, which will be increasingly important as the population grows and productive land becomes scarcer.
Micro-grids are increasingly useful to populations impacted by natural disasters whose frequency and severity have been exacerbated by climate change
Micro-grids are increasingly useful to populations impacted by natural disasters whose frequency and severity have been exacerbated by climate change. In California, wildfires have become alarmingly frequent, more intense, and faster-moving due to the impacts of drought and increasing occurrence of extended heatwaves. These events have prompted regional power shutoffs that have incurred large costs, including lives, especially for those living in the so-called wildland–urban interface. Conventional micro-grids using diesel generators contribute to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and are costly. Local smaller-scale renewable energy sources can deliver more reliable services while mitigating climate change. An international team led by research scientists at the United States (US) Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory confirmed that clean energy micro-grids relying on solar and batteries provide a cheaper solution compared to conventional micro-grids. They cost well below what households typically pay for electricity and can reduce the impact of power outages (by minimizing power shutdown time) by a factor of up to 30
As was also observed in the Adaptation and Mitigation editions of the Green Technology Book, many technologies bridge these two functional terms as they have qualities relevant for both. While maintaining a functional division between adaptation and mitigation is useful for programmatic and financing purposes, it is often less useful in relation to actual solutions implementation, including in innovation and technology development and deployment. In the Green Technology Book, we point out both adaptation and mitigation qualities of technologies and technical fields where feasible, although when it comes to energy solutions, mitigation will often be the primary climate change related quality of a technology.
International climate finance and cooperation
Energy security reimagined: an opportunity for every country
The energy transition will have a diverse and nuanced range of effects on global geopolitics. As the share of renewable energy rises, energy security will undergo a transformation. Energy security, once viewed primarily as an international question concerning access to commodities like oil, coal and gas, will become a national governance issue focused on providing continuous service
Energy security will become a national governance issue focused on providing continuous service
The transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy is ushering in energy systems that are more electrified, decentralized and digitalized. This shift is slated to amplify the prominence of electrification, while reducing both the trade and geopolitical power of fossil fuel resources. It will also importantly affect issues concerning technology access
In 2022, 86 percent of the global population lived in countries that were net importers of fossil fuels (
Countries that provide energy subsidies are especially vulnerable, because rising commodity prices directly burden their national budget. A shift to renewables from local sources can bolster self-sufficiency, moving energy dependency from the global to the regional level and lessening vulnerability to geopolitical disruptions. However, countries will continue to be linked through global clean technology supply chains (
As issues related to supply become less significant, a broader range of factors will need to be considered. They include flexibility (system digitalization, energy efficiency, demand management and response, batteries and storage technologies, and grid stability), infrastructure concerns, availability of and access to technology (resilient supply chains), economic and trade considerations, and decentralization (opportunities for using domestic resources and consumer involvement)
Developing countries often lack access both to technology and finance for the energy transition
Developing countries lack access both to technology and financing, exemplified by Africa, whose share of global renewable capacity is only 1.6 percent. Figure 1.2 depicts the 2023 share for Africa as compared to the G7 and G20 countries for capacity additions and global share of current overall capacity. Developing countries face challenges in accessing low-cost capital for renewable energy investment, high interest rates having made such projects less attractive than fossil fuels. Additionally, concerns about investment risks, inadequate regulatory frameworks and insufficient incentives further elevate the cost of capital compared to developed nations
Africa's share of global renewable capacity is only 1.6 percent
However, developing countries that lack domestic fuel reserves may benefit the most from a shift to renewable energy. Renewable energy has increasingly become a viable alternative in developing countries due to a combination of falling costs and mobile banking. Indeed, off-grid solutions (standalone and mini-grids) could supply roughly 60 percent of the additional generation needed to achieve the goal of universal energy access by 2030
Of course, effort is needed to ensure that the energy transition does not disproportionately impact those countries with fewer resources to develop technologies. Several countries have limited access to technologies and face high capital costs. This makes it increasingly necessary to facilitate technology transfer alongside providing access to intellectual property rights in support of deployment and to promote an equitable energy transition. Knowledge sharing will also be important for new market creation, as well as nurturing local expertise. The opportunity to decrease energy import spending while at the same time increasing resilience could especially benefit the Small Island Developing States (SIDS), for whom imported fossil fuels account for 8 percent of GDP
SIDS are particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, but do have access to plentiful renewable energy sources. International cooperation in support of their renewable energy ambitions is essential, as more than half of the collective renewable power targeted capacity in the SIDS’ Paris climate pledges is conditional upon financing, technical assistance, technology transfer or capacity-building
Closing the innovation divide through technology transfer
As mentioned, Parties at COP 28 committed to tripling renewable energy capacity and doubling energy efficiency improvements, placing energy efficiency at the core of policymaking
Many least developed and emerging economies have a unique chance to build sustainable systems from the ground up
Many least developed and emerging economies possess significant potential for advancing the energy transition. With high unexploited potential for energy efficiency improvements, abundant opportunities for solar energy, and the emergence of new cities and industries, there is a unique chance to build sustainable systems from the ground up. However, progress in these regions has been hampered for several reasons – one of them being the fact that about 80 percent of the world’s financial assets are held in advanced economies. Another reason is the high up-front costs associated with key technologies supporting the energy transition
Stronger international cooperation is needed to enable efficient technology transfer for low-carbon energy technologies. The disparity between developed and developing countries in terms of developing, accessing and producing climate technologies domestically, is not conducive for collective progress toward sustainable development and effective climate action under the Paris Agreement
Various political measures have been put in place to incentivize and attract low-carbon energy investments to emerging markets and developing economies, promote energy decentralization and reduce geopolitical risk. This includes international climate finance mechanisms which are expected to increase technology investments in developing countries, business-to-business interactions and carbon trading schemes.
Internationally, the Clean Energy Ministerial is a high-level global forum to promote policies and programs that advance clean energy technology, to share lessons learned and best practices, and to encourage the transition to a global clean energy economy. It has 29 member countries pursuing 20 workstreams to facilitate the transition. The European Union (EU)–India Clean Energy and Climate Partnership and the Africa–EU Green Energy Initiative are other examples of international initiatives that aim to support countries' increase in renewable energy capacity while enabling energy efficiency and broader access to affordable and reliable energy
Energy and transport major climate finance recipients, with energy efficiency lagging behind
Majority of climate finance flowing from developed to developing countries goes toward climate change mitigation, with lower levels of adaptation finance which may act as a bottleneck. In 2021, total climate finance amounted to USD 89.6 billion – an increase of 7.6 percent over the previous year. Of the total climate finance provided between 2016 and 2021, 31 percent targeted the energy sector
Comparisons in climate finance between renewable energy generation and energy efficiency can be tricky, but a 2018 breakdown of climate finance by use and sector shows how the prevalence of funds are focused on renewable energy. That year, energy efficiency saw only a tenth of the climate finance directed toward renewable energy
For instance, renewable energy policies frequently garner more political attention and resources than energy efficiency measures, leading many countries to prioritize renewable energy over efficiency when setting targets
Renewable energy projects also generate clear, long-term revenue streams through the sale of electricity, often through power purchase agreements. This makes them more attractive to investors who can easily calculate returns. Energy efficiency savings, on the other hand, can be harder to quantify and monetize, particularly because they are based on avoided costs rather than generated income. The savings are often spread over time and can be less predictable, making them less appealing to traditional investors, including at household level. In fact, while households are playing an increasingly active role in the energy transition (box 1.2) they often overlook energy efficiency investments despite them being cost-effective
Consumers are playing an increasingly active role in clean energy adoption, through purchases such as electric vehicles (EVs), heat pumps and energy-efficient household appliances. Household spending on climate mitigation reached USD 184 billion in 2021–2022, up from USD 130 billion in 2019–2020. This was mainly driven by global EV purchases, followed by residential solar PVs, solar water heaters and energy-efficiency home renovation
While the world added 50 percent more renewable energy capacity in 2023 than in 2022
Technologies for demand management and energy efficiency will pay off financially regardless of the level of climate change related impact
This also further emphasizes the importance of curbing our energy demand. Technologies for demand management and energy efficiency represent no-regret investments as they will pay off financially regardless of the level of climate change related impact. And while investment in energy efficiency has been increasing, as shown in figure 1.3 below, it is not doing so with the same rate as renewable energy investments, which may have consequences for meeting more ambitious climate scenarios
Specific sectors also remain largely underfunded. More specifically, agrifood systems writ large may be underfinanced, and strikingly so in several regions. However, projects, startups and technologies that intersect with energy have seen significant investment in recent years. Most project-level private finance (USD 2.81 billion) for agrifood systems was spent on projects at the intersection of agrifood and energy systems. And commercial financial institutions invested in 2019–2020 USD 1.6 billion in projects almost entirely supporting renewable energy in relation to agrifood activities
Despite a significant increase in venture capital investment into climate technology between 2013 and 2019, and unprecedented levels in 2021–2022
Renewable energy as a new waste and recycling stream
Some have voiced concerns that such a large increase in renewable energy infrastructure deployment can have negative impacts due to the risk of obsolescence as technology rapidly advances. Newer technologies deliver better performance and efficiency, making older systems less useful and competitive. This can lead to increased maintenance costs, higher economic pressure, and challenges in upgrading or replacing outdated equipment.
For example, electronic waste (e-waste) is a rapidly growing environmental issue driven by the increasing consumption of electronic devices such as smartphones, computers and appliances. As technology advances and consumer electronics become obsolete, vast amounts of e-waste are generated. This waste poses significant environmental and health risks due to the presence of hazardous materials like lead, mercury and cadmium in electronic devices.
There is rising concern regarding renewables due to the predicted increase of decommissioned PV panels. A commonly cited statistic projected that 60 million tonnes of PV panel waste would be produced by 2050
That said, it remains prudent to continue researching, scaling and advancing circular pathways for PVs. This starts at the design stage by improving the longevity of renewable energy components and designing them for easy replacement and upgrades, which can facilitate easier recycling and reduce waste. Also, there is the need to invest in and develop specialized recycling facilities that can handle complex materials from solar panels, wind turbine blades and batteries. Exploring alternatives to using rare materials is becoming more critical, alongside promoting recycling programs that recover valuable materials and integrate them back into the supply chain to reduce the need for new raw materials. And finally, it is imperative to effectively implement extended producer responsibility policies that require manufacturers to take responsibility for the end-of-life management of their products, including recycling and disposal
EVs can be up to 50 percent more efficient than internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles and achieving full electrification globally could reduce global transport energy demand by up to 22 percent
The role of innovation and intellectual property rights for clean energy technologies
Clean energy technology patents have increased, with nearly half of applications in solar energy
When mapping innovations across the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), SDG 7 Affordable and Clean Energy shows an upward trend in patent activity – slightly stronger compared to most other SDGs. When considering factors such as innovation intensity and relative recency (meaning the frequency and freshness of new patents being filed), SDG 7 comes out as a topic of emerging interest and current hot topic for innovation (figure 1.5). This trend highlights the increasing focus and investment in technologies aimed at improving energy efficiency, harnessing renewable energy sources and reducing carbon emissions.
While energy patent trends do not necessarily reflect market demand or indicate whether a technology will be commercially available or successful, analyzing them does provide us with insights into technological developments, industry directions and geographical innovation hotspots. For a discussion on the innovation ecosystem for climate change technologies and intellectual property rights systems, see Chapter 2 of the Green Technology Book Adaptation edition.
Innovation in renewable energy technologies has seen a fluctuating but mostly upward trend. The number of published patent applications increased from around 29,800 in 2006 to around 46,300 in 2021. Solar represented nearly half of these innovations in 2021
When examining progress over time, it is worth noting how innovation intensity evolves as technologies develop and mature. As a technology matures, often less research and development (R&D) effort is allocated to it, which is reflected in decreasing patenting activity
Most inventions relate to end-use sectors and enabling energy technologies
Beyond energy supply, most innovation is taking place for end-use solutions and enabling technologies, reflecting recognition of the global challenge to curb energy demand. While technologies that enable fuel switching and energy efficiency represented 60 percent of all low-carbon energy (LCE) international patent families (IPFs) between 2014 and 2019, renewable energy only represented 17 percent – despite drawing significant attention. Meanwhile, enabling technologies such as batteries, hydrogen, smart grids and CCUS saw the biggest growth, representing 34 percent of LCEs in 2019
Most innovation is taking place for end-use solutions and enabling technologies, reflecting recognition of the global challenge to curb energy demand
For instance, renewable energy technologies, like solar and wind power, have reached a certain level of maturity. As these technologies have developed over the years, the focus has shifted from innovation to large-scale deployment. Consequently, more capital is directed toward building and expanding renewable energy infrastructure rather than investing in new innovations, leading to less patenting activity. On the other hand, energy efficiency encompasses a broad range of technologies and applications that are still evolving. As new ways to optimize energy use across various sectors are explored, there is more room for innovation, resulting in higher patenting activity. Further, energy efficiency covers a wide array of sectors, including buildings, transportation, industry and appliances. Each of these areas offers unique opportunities for incremental innovation.
The growing importance of end-use and enabling LCE technologies has also led to a lot of innovation overlap with other sectors, such as buildings, consumer products and agriculture. What is worth noting is that inventions in these fields often support a shift toward more flexible and decentralized energy solutions that enable more climate-resilient energy systems.
Over the years, the share of LCE patents generated by research institutions has been growing, except for end-use technologies which dominate patenting activity. LCE technologies for end-users are often characterized by small unit sizes and a competitive market. Here, most innovations come from the private sector rather than universities and public research organizations
Transport and industry dominate end-use energy innovations
Transportation leads in patenting activity for LCE technologies, accounting for over 40 percent of IPFs in end-use sectors from 2000 to 2019, with road transportation alone constituting about 35 percent. EV patents, including fuel cells and charging technologies, have grown rapidly, surpassing other road transport technologies in 2011. Another key area of technological development relates to the industry’s transition and energy intensity, representing nearly a third of end-use technology IPFs
Notably, metal and mineral processing saw dynamic growth, averaging 12 percent annually from 2010 to 2019, while clean energy patents in the chemical and oil sectors declined after 2015. Clean energy technologies for agriculture, production of consumer goods and other industrial production sectors accounted for 16 percent of IPFs during that period. Building technologies, covering efficient lighting, heating, and construction, accounted for more than 17 percent of end-use IPFs but saw a decline after 2013. The information and communications technology sector has experienced a significant rise in LCE patents, growing at an average annual rate of 10 percent from 2000 to 2019, driven by the need for energy savings in computing and communications
Most energy innovation happening in China and high-income countries
The regional distribution of patent filings can also highlight countries that are leading in specific technological domains. Looking more broadly at the low-carbon innovation landscape, Europe, Japan and the United States accounted for more than three quarters of all IPFs generated from 2000 to 2019
Industrialized countries often have national agencies for developing energy technologies. Countries such as Japan, which suffer from limited access to energy sources, spend a significant percentage of total government spending on energy R&D. The biggest growth in energy R&D spending can again be seen in China, which was a key factor behind the 10 percent global growth in public spending on energy R&D in 2022
The high regional imbalance and concentration for clean energy technologies is also evident when looking at manufacturing operations. In 2023, four countries – China, United States, India, Viet Nam and the European Union accounted for around 80 to 90 percent of global manufacturing capacity for solar PVs, wind, batteries, electrolyzers and heat pumps
Overall, the growing levels of innovation in clean and low-carbon energy technologies underscore the importance of continued investment in R&D to meet global climate goals. The upward trend in patent activity signals a strong focus on advancing technologies that enhance energy efficiency, expand renewable energy use and reduce carbon emissions. While the shift from innovation to deployment in mature technologies like solar and wind has led to less patenting activity in those areas, the ongoing development in energy efficiency and enabling technologies highlights the critical role of innovation in driving progress across many sectors active in the energy transition.
Recent innovation and patenting in the agrifood sector
Patents within the agrifood sector comprise more than 3.5 million published patent families (inventions) filed over the past 20 years. The United States has long been a major player, but recent surges in R&D investment by China and Japan seem to be altering the global patent landscape within the sector
One of the top four key research hotspots in AgriTech identified by WIPO is precision agriculture, including advancements in robotic/autonomous agriculture vehicles and automation through AI and software. Data analysis from 1,500 international patent families in the predictive models in precision agriculture field shows a significant recent annual growth rate of 27.1 percent, indicating an upswing of interest within the topic sector