The past 50 years have seen the world’s resource use more than triple while the global population doubled.[128][129] This is the main driver of the current triple planetary crisis. In fact, resource use represents half of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, more than 90 percent of land-related biodiversity loss and water stress, and a third of health-related pollution impacts.[130] This section explores how technology and innovation, from simple water fountains to digital solutions, can support a transformational shift in how we produce, consume and dispose of materials.

Proven technologies  

Frontier technologies  

Horizon technologies  

Innovation examples

Emissions from materials are growing rapidly

Construction materials, metals, plastics and wood are essential in building a city. More than half of the world’s urban population lives in cities[131] and urbanization is increasing exponentially…
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Emissions from materials are growing rapidly

Construction materials, metals, plastics and wood are essential in building a city. More than half of the world’s urban population lives in cities[131] and urbanization is increasing exponentially along with material consumption rates. The rapid scaling of electric vehicles, solar panels and wind turbines is also driving up demand for critical raw materials. Material use is expected to double between 2020 and 2050.[132] Exponential growth in production and consumption is seen in all resource types, with some growing faster than others. Plastics, which account for nearly 5 percent of global GHG emissions, [133] are expected to nearly triple by 2060 at the current rate (figure 2.4).[134][135]

The growth in material demand is not only depleting natural resources such as minerals and water, but it nearly doubled the GHG emissions caused by material production from 1995 to 2015 (figure 2.5). The rapid growth in demand is thus offsetting policy and technology measures to reduce emissions from production and manufacturing processes. Therefore, material demand management is essential for meaningful climate action (box 2.2). Many technologies are responding to this challenge, and as is often the case, they start by supporting climate-smart design.

Figure 2.5 Emissions (in gigatons) caused by material production as a share of global emissions, 1995 versus 2015[136]
Source: International Resource Panel, 2020.

 
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Climate-smart design for circular cities

Designing lighter products reduces the embodied carbon in assets such as homes and cars. Using less steel in the loadbearing structure of buildings is one example. Another is replacing some of the steel in vehicles with aluminum. Aluminum has a…
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Climate-smart design for circular cities

Designing lighter products reduces the embodied carbon in assets such as homes and cars. Using less steel in the loadbearing structure of buildings is one example. Another is replacing some of the steel in vehicles with aluminum. Aluminum has a higher carbon footprint than steel but overall emissions are reduced through fuel-savings gained by having a lighter car.[137] These so-called lightweighting solutions must not come at the expense of durability or recyclability of a product.

There is growing interest in applying proven tools such as computer-aided design (CAD) and building information modeling (BIM) for climate-smart design.[138] For instance, BIM is used in design processes to locate areas of medium and low structural load that allow for lightweighting without losing functionality. The technology can also produce a virtual representation of a building to see how prefabricated components and modules can best fit together. This supports material use optimization and waste reduction.[139]

Climate-smart design also means considering materials’ end-of-life stage and the design of products for easy and affordable reuse and recycling. For instance, transparent and unmixed plastic is easier to recycle than black plastic products that combine multiple material types. Bolting construction materials together instead of welding allows for easier and less destructive material recovery at the end-of-life stage.
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Reviving natural building materials

Wood, rammed earth and adobe bricks made from materials such as mud are re-emerging as natural alternatives to carbon-intensive steel and cement in various parts of the world, depending on the climatic zone. While these are traditional…
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Reviving natural building materials

Wood, rammed earth and adobe bricks made from materials such as mud are re-emerging as natural alternatives to carbon-intensive steel and cement in various parts of the world, depending on the climatic zone. While these are traditional solutions, they are easily overlooked in the face of rapid urbanization and restrictive building codes. A common barrier to uptake of low-carbon and local materials is the inability to produce them at scale. Limited availability of demonstration projects and a lack of supportive regulation further inhibits their adoption.[140][141] However, technological developments and growing interest in state-of-the-art advanced manufacturing methods can enable a modern approach to the use of such materials in cities.[142][143]

Wooden high-rise constructions are increasing in number thanks to advances in engineered wood, such as cross-laminated timber and glued laminated timber.[144] Reinforced timber beams and modern adhesive technologies have helped overcome barriers to tensile strength. Additionally, moisture monitoring and non-flammable surface materials have increased resistance to moisture damage and fire. However, it is important to note that the climate benefits of using wood as a construction material have recently been disputed, and the right conditions must be ensured to limit associated emissions.[145]
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Innovations in material sustainability

Material science innovation is also leading to eco-friendly materials, sustainable building materials and the valorization of waste for new uses. This applies to a range of sectors, including for construction material, proteins, fertilizers and…
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Innovations in material sustainability

Material science innovation is also leading to eco-friendly materials, sustainable building materials and the valorization of waste for new uses. This applies to a range of sectors, including for construction material, proteins, fertilizers and plastics. In the case of plastics, biodegradable and bio-based plastics have been championed for some time. Their production still represents less than 1 percent of all plastic but they are expected to witness an annual growth rate of 14 percent between 2022 and 2027.[146]

Notably, many institutions including the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) now highlight the fact that biodegradable plastic items often do not degrade in the environment but require special composting facilities. And while bio-based plastics can be a good alternative if there is appropriate collection and recycling infrastructure in place, they may not always lead to better outcomes.[147] In any case, material substitution considerations must be guided by life-cycle thinking to understand the trade-offs and overall impact.
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Policies for sustainable waste management

Less than 14 percent of global waste is recycled, mainly due to a lack of waste management infrastructure.[148] While this chapter explores the role of technology and innovation, such…
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Policies for sustainable waste management

Less than 14 percent of global waste is recycled, mainly due to a lack of waste management infrastructure.[148] While this chapter explores the role of technology and innovation, such applications have limited impact on improved collection and sorting if the enabling environment is weak. Primarily, ambitious policies and economic measures such as extended producer responsibility (EPR) schemes are essential to incentivize better waste separation at source by citizens.

In more than 40 countries, mainly in Europe, deposit return schemes have helped increase the recycling rate for glass and plastic, and the number participating is growing.[149] In many countries, the scheme also extends to metal cans. A small fee is added to the price of products such as drinking containers, which is refunded to the consumer when they bring them back to a collection point.
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The digital revolution in waste management

Cities in many developing countries rely on the support of formal or informal waste pickers to sort and collect waste for recycling. In some cities, waste pickers have started to use mobile apps that connect them directly with customers and…
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The digital revolution in waste management

Cities in many developing countries rely on the support of formal or informal waste pickers to sort and collect waste for recycling. In some cities, waste pickers have started to use mobile apps that connect them directly with customers and enable door-to-door collection or organize pick-up points under more sanitary conditions than landfill sites.[150] For municipal waste, optical scanners and robotics are now merging with artificial intelligence (AI) technology to offer efficient screening, identification and separation of waste streams. Hundreds of sorting facilities around the world have already implemented such technologies [151] and Danish researchers recently revealed a near-infrared technology that could distinguish between 12 types of polymers.[152] Geographical information systems (GIS) enable optimization of collection routes in cities. Other innovations such as chemical tracers and digital watermarks are just emerging.

For municipal waste, optical scanners and robotics are now merging with artificial intelligence (AI) technology to offer efficient screening, identification and separation of waste streams. Hundreds of sorting facilities around the world have already implemented such technologies

Beyond municipal waste, advances in automation technologies could also enable easier deconstruction and dismantling of buildings and products in the future.[153][154] While mixed construction and demolition waste is difficult to recover and is often downcycled as aggregate, advances in robotics have shown a positive impact on separation and recycling rates. In the vehicles sector, machine-based vehicle recycling systems can dismantle cars with precision to extract valuable materials. With appropriate investment, many more parts could already be salvaged today, from tires and batteries to plastic bumpers and air conditioning compressors.
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Waste management technologies have varying climate impact

For municipal waste that is not presorted, mechanical and biological treatment (MBT) plants are increasingly recognized for their ability to recover more materials and reduce methane emissions from landfill. At these plants, a mix of…
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Waste management technologies have varying climate impact

For municipal waste that is not presorted, mechanical and biological treatment (MBT) plants are increasingly recognized for their ability to recover more materials and reduce methane emissions from landfill. At these plants, a mix of technologies and biological processes is used to sort out metal, glass and plastics and turn the remaining waste into refuse-derived fuel. For instance, studies have shown that MBT prior to landfilling is one of the most favorable options from a climate impact standpoint, and can be more cost-effective than incineration.[155][156]

Several advances in recycling technologies themselves are also emerging, focusing on hard-to-recycle products such as car tires and wind turbine blades. However, as many of these recycling technologies rely on energy-intensive processes like pyrolysis, the full life-cycle implications need to be considered before they can be viewed as viable from a climate perspective.[157]
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Recycling does not sufficiently address climate change

While several innovative recycling technologies are emerging, numerous studies have shown that recycling can never respond to the growing production of materials fast enough to make a meaningful contribution to climate mitigation. The numbers…
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Recycling does not sufficiently address climate change

While several innovative recycling technologies are emerging, numerous studies have shown that recycling can never respond to the growing production of materials fast enough to make a meaningful contribution to climate mitigation. The numbers simply do not add up. For instance, at 9 percent the current rate of plastics recycling will never catch up with the exponential growth in plastic production. This is particularly problematic from a climate perspective, as more than 60 percent of plastic’s emissions occur during plastic pellet production stage.[158][159][160] Therefore, any meaningful mitigation strategy requires a major shift in terms of investments toward a circular economy, with a particular focus on phasing out single-use and unnecessary plastic production. A circular economy approach would also go beyond recycling to support climate-smart design and material choices, and facilitate collective ownership, repair and reuse.
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Reducing GHG emissions from incineration

Of all the waste generated in the world, around 11 percent is incinerated.[161] This occurs mainly in upper middle-income and high-income countries where waste-to-energy incineration is a common…
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Reducing GHG emissions from incineration

Of all the waste generated in the world, around 11 percent is incinerated.[161] This occurs mainly in upper middle-income and high-income countries where waste-to-energy incineration is a common practice. While waste-to-energy technologies can contribute to global energy supply and address the need for waste management [162], municipal solid waste incinerators themselves are highly polluting.

In fact, incinerators can emit more GHG emissions per unit of electricity produced than any other power source, as they often operate under conditions of low efficiency.[163] Targeting the pressure and temperature of the steam cycle can improve efficiency of incinerators, while better plant capacity design can help reduce the need for imported waste. Yet, typical efficiencies of EU incinerators are as low as 25 percent, compared to 55 percent for combined cycle gas turbine plants.[164]

In developing countries, where municipal waste often contains more organic matter, efficiencies are even lower and air pollutants are a common problem. Here, technologies such as anaerobic digestion – in which microorganisms break down organic matter in the absence of oxygen – are more appropriate options.[165] However, it is expected that modern waste incinerators could be built in some middle-income countries in the near future and China is seeing rapid implementation of the technology.[166]

Carbon capture and storage technologies are now being considered to mitigate the climate impact of incinerators. Meanwhile, countries such as Denmark, where incineration has completely replaced landfills, have embarked on a journey to limit their incineration capacity in order to reach stated climate goals.[167]
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Reducing methane emissions from landfills and open dumps

Globally, around 5 percent of global GHG emissions derive from solid waste treatment and disposal – mainly as methane – from open dumps and landfills without gas capture systems. In fact, landfill waste accounts for around 11 percent…
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Reducing methane emissions from landfills and open dumps

Globally, around 5 percent of global GHG emissions derive from solid waste treatment and disposal – mainly as methane – from open dumps and landfills without gas capture systems. In fact, landfill waste accounts for around 11 percent of global methane emissions.[168]

Satellite-based technologies can now measure site-specific emissions, which can vary greatly between different landfills.[169] Gas drainage and leachate control systems help reduce emissions from landfills caused by the degradation of organic matter into methane and other gases. Bioreactor landfills are a relatively new approach involving recirculation of leachate to support the degradation process of organic waste and increase gas generation and capture in controlled forms. Captured gases can even be used to generate electricity on site.

Satellite-based technologies can now measure site-specific emissions, which can vary greatly between different landfills

However, controlled landfills are almost exclusively found in high- or upper middle-income countries, while 93 percent of waste in low-income countries ends up in open dumps.[170] There have been rehabilitation efforts all over the world. Yet, the handling of open landfills and the environmental and health hazards they pose is a major unsolved challenge that cannot be addressed by the application of technology alone.

Any innovation in the management of open dumps would also need to consider the working conditions and rights of informal waste pickers who earn a daily living by collecting waste. This is particularly relevant considering their major contribution to recycling rates; nearly 60 percent of the world’s recycled plastic is collected by waste pickers.[171]
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The climate justice rationale for material sustainability and efficiency

Emerging economies show the steepest rise in consumption, driven by increased population density and industrialization. However, the per capita material footprint of high-income countries is still around 60 percent higher than upper…
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The climate justice rationale for material sustainability and efficiency

Emerging economies show the steepest rise in consumption, driven by increased population density and industrialization. However, the per capita material footprint of high-income countries is still around 60 percent higher than upper middle-income countries, and more than 13 times the level of low-income countries.[172][173]

Furthermore, material-intensive production is increasingly being outsourced from developed to developing countries.[174] In a global market, more cities are now estimating their GHG emissions based on consumption parameters, with the results pointing to large differences between those considered “producer” cities and “consumer” cities.[175]

Consumption-based emissions are much higher in European and North American cities, while several cities in Asia and Africa have higher sector-based GHG emissions due to the location of manufacturing industries.[176] Therefore, managing material demand and efficiency not only leads to greater overall GHG emission reductions, but also helps balance the responsibility for mitigation efforts more evenly between producers and consumers.

Meanwhile, research shows that the circular economy offers a USD 4.5 trillion economic opportunity and has massive potential for growth generation and job creation

While economic development has historically relied on increasing material demand, the science around dematerializing economic growth is clear and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) clearly refers to demand reduction as a key necessity for staying within the boundaries of what the planet can sustain (box 2.2). Meanwhile, research shows that the circular economy offers a USD 4.5 trillion economic opportunity and has massive potential for growth generation and job creation – while remaining within the planetary boundaries.[177]


Box 2.2 Managing material demand through technology and innovation

The need for sustainable resource management has been recognized in the landmark IPCC report on climate change mitigation. The report refers to the need to “avoid demand for energy, materials, land and water while delivering human well-being-for-all within planetary boundaries”.[178]

Managing demand and ensuring sufficient access to resources relates to many spheres of life, including access to shelter, nutrition, basic amenities, health care, transportation, information, education and public space. Here, the principle of fair consumption of space and resources is central. This further recognizes the need for affluent countries to embrace resource conservation through measures such as better design and circulation of materials, while simultaneously enabling the sustainable growth of developing and emerging economies. The IPCC defines the upper limit of sufficiency as the remaining carbon budget, while a decent living standard defines the minimum level of sufficiency for basic human well-being.

Indeed, technology and innovation play a crucial role in achieving efficiency and shifting to low-carbon fuels and feedstock. However, more recognition is needed of the role of technology and innovation for managing the demand for materials throughout their life cycle.

There is an important distinction to be made here. While technologies that enable efficiency are the result of continuous technological improvements that allow more to be done with less, they do not necessarily consider the planetary boundaries. While efficiency gains are needed, taking demand and sufficiency of materials into consideration goes beyond efforts to support incremental change. It acknowledges strategies that use less material by design, extend product lifetimes, provide more efficient services, and reuse and recycle materials. Here, technology can play a major role. 


 
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